Standard C艹

Constructors

What’s the deal with constructors?

Constructors build objects from dust.

Constructors are like “init functions”. They turn a pile of arbitrary bits into a living object. Minimally they initialize internally used fields. They may also allocate resources (memory, files, semaphores, sockets, etc).

“ctor” is a typical abbreviation for constructor.

Is there any difference between `List x;` and `List x();`?

A big difference!

Suppose that List is the name of some class. Then function f() declares a local List object called x:

void f()
{
  List x;     // Local object named x (of class List)
  // ...
}

But function g() declares a function called x() that returns a List:

void g()
{
  List x();   // Function named x (that returns a List)
  // ...
}

Can one constructor of a class call another constructor of the same class to initialize the `this` object?

The answer below applies to Classic (pre-11) C艹. This question covers the C艹11 feature of constructors that call same-type constructors.

Nope.

Let’s work an example. Suppose you want your constructor Foo::Foo(char) to call another constructor of the same class, say Foo::Foo(char,int), in order that Foo::Foo(char,int) would help initialize the this object. Unfortunately there’s no way to do this in Classic C艹.

Some people do it anyway. Unfortunately it doesn’t do what they want. For example, the line Foo(x, 0); does not call Foo::Foo(char,int) on the this object. Instead it calls Foo::Foo(char,int) to initialize a temporary, local object (not this), then it immediately destructs that temporary when control flows over the ;.

class Foo {
public:
  Foo(char x);
  Foo(char x, int y);
  // ...
};

Foo::Foo(char x)
{
  // ...
  Foo(x, 0);  // Does NOT help initialize the this object!!
  // ...
}

You can sometimes combine two constructors via a default parameter:

class Foo {
public:
  Foo(char x, int y = 0);  // Has the effect of combining the two constructors
  // ...
};

If that doesn’t work, e.g., if there isn’t an appropriate default parameter that combines the two constructors, sometimes you can share their common code in a private init() member function:

class Foo {
public:
  Foo(char x);
  Foo(char x, int y);
  // ...
private:
  void init(char x, int y);
};

Foo::Foo(char x)
{
  init(x, int(x) + 7);
  // ...
}

Foo::Foo(char x, int y)
{
  init(x, y);
  // ...
}

void Foo::init(char x, int y)
{
  // ...
}

BTW do NOT try to achieve this via placement new. Some people think they can say new(this) Foo(x, int(x)+7) within the body of Foo::Foo(char). However that is bad, bad, bad. Please don’t write me and tell me that it seems to work on your particular version of your particular compiler; it’s bad. Constructors do a bunch of little magical things behind the scenes, but that bad technique steps on those partially constructed bits. Just say no.

Is the default constructor for `Fred` always `Fred::Fred()`?

No.

A “default constructor” is a constructor that can be called with no arguments. One example of this is a constructor that takes no parameters:

class Fred {
public:
  Fred();   // Default constructor: can be called with no args
  // ...
};

Another example of a “default constructor” is one that can take arguments, provided they are given default values:

class Fred {
public:
  Fred(int i=3, int j=5);   // Default constructor: can be called with no args
  // ...
};

Which constructor gets called when I create an array of `Fred` objects?

Fred’s default constructor (except as discussed below).

class Fred {
public:
  Fred();
  // ...
};

int main()
{
  Fred a[10];              // Calls the default constructor 10 times
  Fred* p = new Fred[10];  // Calls the default constructor 10 times
  // ...
}

If your class doesn’t have a default constructor, you’ll get a compile-time error when you attempt to create an array using the above simple syntax:

class Fred {
public:
  Fred(int i, int j);      // Assume there is no default constructor
  // ...
};

int main()
{
  Fred a[10];              // ERROR: Fred doesn't have a default constructor
  Fred* p = new Fred[10];  // ERROR: Fred doesn't have a default constructor
  // ...
}

However, even if your class already has a default constructor, you should try to use std::vector<Fred> rather than an array (arrays are evil). std::vector lets you decide to use any constructor, not just the default constructor:

#include <vector>

int main()
{
  std::vector<Fred> a(10, Fred(5,7));  // The 10 Fred objects in std::vector a will be initialized with Fred(5,7)
  // ...
}

Even though you ought to use a std::vector rather than an array, there are times when an array might be the right thing to do, and for those, you might need the “explicit initialization of arrays” syntax. Here’s how:

class Fred {
public:
  Fred(int i, int j);      // Assume there is no default constructor
  // ...
};

int main()
{
  Fred a[10] = {
    Fred(5,7), Fred(5,7), Fred(5,7), Fred(5,7), Fred(5,7),  // The 10 Fred objects are
    Fred(5,7), Fred(5,7), Fred(5,7), Fred(5,7), Fred(5,7)   // initialized using Fred(5,7)
  };
  // ...
}

Of course you don’t have to do Fred(5,7) for every entry — you can put in any numbers you want, even parameters or other variables.

Finally, you can use placement-new to manually initialize the elements of the array. Warning: it’s ugly: the raw array can’t be of type Fred, so you’ll need a bunch of pointer-casts to do things like compute array index operations. Warning: it’s compiler- and hardware-dependent: you’ll need to make sure the storage is aligned with an alignment that is at least as strict as is required for objects of class Fred. Warning: it’s tedious to make it exception-safe: you’ll need to manually destruct the elements, including in the case when an exception is thrown part-way through the loop that calls the constructors. But if you really want to do it anyway, read up on placement-new. (BTW placement-new is the magic that is used inside of std::vector. The complexity of getting everything right is yet another reason to use std::vector.)

By the way, did I ever mention that arrays are evil? Or did I mention that you ought to use a std::vector unless there is a compelling reason to use an array?

Should my constructors use “initialization lists” or “assignment”?

Initialization lists. In fact, constructors should initialize as a rule all member objects in the initialization list. One exception is discussed further down.

Watch this space for discussion of Non Static Data Member Initialization in C艹11

// Here is the taste of standard C艹 NSDMI
struct Point {
      int X = 0; // Look at that!!!
      int Y = 0; // 
};

Consider the following constructor that initializes member object x_ using an initialization list: Fred::Fred() : x_(whatever) { }. The most common benefit of doing this is improved performance. For example, if the expression whatever is the same type as member variable x_, the result of the whatever expression is constructed directly inside x_ — the compiler does not make a separate copy of the object. Even if the types are not the same, the compiler is usually able to do a better job with initialization lists than with assignments.

The other (inefficient) way to build constructors is via assignment, such as: Fred::Fred() { x_ = whatever; }. In this case the expression whatever causes a separate, temporary object to be created, and this temporary object is passed into the x_ object’s assignment operator. Then that temporary object is destructed at the ;. That’s inefficient.

As if that wasn’t bad enough, there’s another source of inefficiency when using assignment in a constructor: the member object will get fully constructed by its default constructor, and this might, for example, allocate some default amount of memory or open some default file. All this work could be for naught if the whatever expression and/or assignment operator causes the object to close that file and/or release that memory (e.g., if the default constructor didn’t allocate a large enough pool of memory or if it opened the wrong file).

Conclusion: All other things being equal, your code will run faster if you use initialization lists rather than assignment.

Note: There is no performance difference if the type of x_ is some built-in/intrinsic type, such as int or char* or float. But even in these cases, my personal preference is to set those data members in the initialization list rather than via assignment for consistency. Another symmetry argument in favor of using initialization lists even for built-in/intrinsic types: non-static const and non-static reference data members can’t be assigned a value in the constructor, so for symmetry it makes sense to initialize everything in the initialization list.

Now for the exceptions. Every rule has exceptions (hmmm; does “every rule has exceptions” have exceptions? reminds me of Gödel’s Incompleteness Theorems), and there are a couple of exceptions to the “use initialization lists” rule. Bottom line is to use common sense: if it’s cheaper, better, faster, etc. to not use them, then by all means, don’t use them. This might happen when your class has two constructors that need to initialize the this object’s data members in different orders. Or it might happen when two data members are self-referential. Or when a data-member needs a reference to the this object, and you want to avoid a compiler warning about using the this keyword prior to the { that begins the constructor’s body (when your particular compiler happens to issue that particular warning). Or when you need to do an if…throw test on a variable (parameter, global, etc.) prior to using that variable to initialize one of your this members. This list is not exhaustive; please don’t write me asking me to add another “Or when…”. The point is simply this: use common sense.

How should initializers be ordered in a constructor’s initialization list?

Immediate base classes (left to right), then member objects (top to bottom).

In other words, the order of the initialization list should mimic the order in which initializations will take place. This guideline discourages a particularly subtle class of order dependency errors by giving an obvious, visual clue. For example, the following contains a hideous error.

#include <iostream>

class Y {
public:
  Y();
  void f();
};

Y::Y()      { std::cout << "Initializing Y\n"; }
void Y::f() { std::cout << "Using Y\n"; }

class X {
public:
  X(Y& y);
};

X::X(Y& y) { y.f(); }

class Z {
public:
  Z();
protected:
  X x_;
  Y y_;
};

Z::Z() throw()
  : y_()
  , x_(y_)
    ↑↑   // Bad: should have listed x_ before y_
{ }

int main()
{
  Z z;
  return 0;
}

The output of this program follows.

Using Y
Initializing Y

Note that y_ is used (Y::f()) before it is initialized (Y::Y()). If instead the programmer had read and abided by the guideline in this FAQ, the error would be more obvious: the initialization list of Z::Z() would have read x_(y_), y_(), visually indicating that y_ was being used before being initialized.

Not all compilers issue diagnostic messages for these cases. You have been warned.

Is it moral for one member object to be initialized using another member object in the initializer expression?

Yes, but use care and do that only when it adds value.

In a constructor’s initialization list, it is easiest and safest to avoid using one member object from this object in the initialization expression of a subsequent initializer for this object. This guideline prevents subtle order-dependency errors if someone reorganizes the layout of member objects within the class.

Because of this guideline, the constructor that follows uses s.len_ + 1u rather than len_ + 1u, even though they are otherwise equivalent. The s. prefix avoids an unnecessary and avoidable order dependency.

#include <memory>

class MyString {
public:
  MyString();
 ~MyString();
  MyString(const MyString& s);              // copy constructor
  MyString& operator= (const MyString& s);  // assignment
  // ...
protected:
  unsigned len_;
  char*    data_;
};

MyString::MyString()
  : len_(0u)
  , data_(new char[1])
{
  data_[0] = '\0';
}

MyString::~MyString()
{ delete[] data_; }

MyString::MyString(const MyString& s)
  : len_ (s.len_)
  , data_(new char[s.len_ + 1u])       <--Not {tt{new char[len_+1]}tt}
{                  ↑↑↑↑↑↑   // not len_
  memcpy(data_, s.data_, len_ + 1u);
}                        ↑↑↑↑   // no issue using len_ in ctor's {body}

int main()
{
  MyString a;      // default ctor; zero length MyString ("")
  MyString b = a;  // copy constructor
  return 0;
}

An unnecessary order dependency on the class layout of len_ and data_ would have been introduced if the constructor’s initialization of data_ had used len_ + 1u rather than s.len_ + 1u. However using len_ within a constructor body ({...}) is okay. No order dependency is introduced since the entire initialization list is guaranteed to finish before the constructor body begins executing.

What if one member object has to be initialized using another member object?

Comment the declaration of the effected data members with //ORDER DEPENDENCY.

If a constructor initializes a member object of this object using another member object of this object, rearranging the data members of the class could break the constructor. This important maintenance constraint should be documented in the class body.

For example, in the constructor below, the initializer for data_ uses len_ to avoid a redundant call to std::strlen(s), which introduces an order dependency in the class body.

#include <memory>

class MyString {
public:
  MyString(const char* s);                // promote const char*
  MyString(const MyString& s);            // copy constructor
  MyString& operator= (const MyString&);  // assignment
 ~MyString();
  // ...
protected:
  unsigned len_;   // ORDER DEPENDENCY
  char*    data_;  // ORDER DEPENDENCY
};

MyString::MyString(const char* s)
  : len_ (std::strlen(s))
  , data_(new char[len_ + 1u])
{
  std::memcpy(data_, s, len_ + 1u);
}

MyString::~MyString()
{
  delete[] data_;
}

int main()
{
  MyString s = "xyzzy";
  return 0;
}

Note that the //ORDER DEPENDENCY comment is listed with the effected data members in the class body, not with the constructor initialization list where the order dependency was actually created. That is because the order of member objects in the class body is critical; the order of initializers in the constructor initialization list is irrelevant.

Should you use the `this` pointer in the constructor?

Some people feel you should not use the this pointer in a constructor because the object is not fully formed yet. However you can use this in the constructor (in the {body} and even in the initialization list) if you are careful.

Here is something that always works: the {body} of a constructor (or a function called from the constructor) can reliably access the data members declared in a base class and/or the data members declared in the constructor’s own class. This is because all those data members are guaranteed to have been fully constructed by the time the constructor’s {body} starts executing.

Here is something that never works: the {body} of a constructor (or a function called from the constructor) cannot get down to a derived class by calling a virtual member function that is overridden in the derived class. If your goal was to get to the overridden function in the derived class, you won’t get what you want. Note that you won’t get to the override in the derived class independent of how you call the virtual member function: explicitly using the this pointer (e.g., this->method()), implicitly using the this pointer (e.g., method()), or even calling some other function that calls the virtual member function on your this object. The bottom line is this: even if the caller is constructing an object of a derived class, during the constructor of the base class, your object is not yet of that derived class. You have been warned.

Here is something that sometimes works: if you pass any of the data members in this object to another data member’s initializer, you must make sure that the other data member has already been initialized. The good news is that you can determine whether the other data member has (or has not) been initialized using some straightforward language rules that are independent of the particular compiler you’re using. The bad news is that you have to know those language rules (e.g., base class sub-objects are initialized first (look up the order if you have multiple and/or virtual inheritance!), then data members defined in the class are initialized in the order in which they appear in the class declaration). If you don’t know these rules, then don’t pass any data member from the this object (regardless of whether or not you explicitly use the this keyword) to any other data member’s initializer! And if you do know the rules, please be careful.

What is the “Named Constructor Idiom”?

A technique that provides more intuitive and/or safer construction operations for users of your class.

The problem is that constructors always have the same name as the class. Therefore the only way to differentiate between the various constructors of a class is by the parameter list. But if there are lots of constructors, the differences between them become somewhat subtle and error prone.

With the Named Constructor Idiom, you declare all the class’s constructors in the private or protected sections, and you provide public static methods that return an object. These static methods are the so-called “Named Constructors.” In general there is one such static method for each different way to construct an object.

For example, suppose we are building a Point class that represents a position on the X-Y plane. Turns out there are two common ways to specify a 2-space coordinate: rectangular coordinates (X+Y), polar coordinates (Radius+Angle). (Don’t worry if you can’t remember these; the point isn’t the particulars of coordinate systems; the point is that there are several ways to create a Point object.) Unfortunately the parameters for these two coordinate systems are the same: two floats. This would create an ambiguity error in the overloaded constructors:

class Point {
public:
  Point(float x, float y);     // Rectangular coordinates
  Point(float r, float a);     // Polar coordinates (radius and angle)
  // ERROR: Overload is Ambiguous: Point::Point(float,float)
};

int main()
{
  Point p = Point(5.7, 1.2);   // Ambiguous: Which coordinate system?
  // ...
}

One way to solve this ambiguity is to use the Named Constructor Idiom:

#include <cmath>               // To get std::sin() and std::cos()

class Point {
public:
  static Point rectangular(float x, float y);      // Rectangular coord's
  static Point polar(float radius, float angle);   // Polar coordinates
  // These static methods are the so-called "named constructors"
  // ...
private:
  Point(float x, float y);     // Rectangular coordinates
  float x_, y_;
};

inline Point::Point(float x, float y)
  : x_(x), y_(y) { }

inline Point Point::rectangular(float x, float y)
{ return Point(x, y); }

inline Point Point::polar(float radius, float angle)
{ return Point(radius*std::cos(angle), radius*std::sin(angle)); }

Now the users of Point have a clear and unambiguous syntax for creating Points in either coordinate system:

int main()
{
  Point p1 = Point::rectangular(5.7, 1.2);   // Obviously rectangular
  Point p2 = Point::polar(5.7, 1.2);         // Obviously polar
  // ...
}

Make sure your constructors are in the protected section if you expect Point to have derived classes.

The Named Constructor Idiom can also be used to make sure your objects are always created via new.

Note that the Named Constructor Idiom, at least as implemented above, is just as fast as directly calling a constructor — modern compilers will not make any extra copies of your object.

Does return-by-value mean extra copies and extra overhead?

Not necessarily.

All(?) commercial-grade compilers optimize away the extra copy, at least in cases as illustrated in the previous FAQ.

To keep the example clean, let’s strip things down to the bare essentials. Suppose function caller() calls rbv() (“rbv” stands for “return by value”) which returns a Foo object by value:

class Foo { /*...*/ };

Foo rbv();

void caller()
{
  Foo x = rbv();  // The return-value of rbv() goes into x
  // ...
}

Now the question is, How many Foo objects will there be? Will rbv() create a temporary Foo object that gets copy-constructed into x? How many temporaries? Said another way, does return-by-value necessarily degrade performance?

The point of this FAQ is that the answer is No, commercial-grade C艹 compilers implement return-by-value in a way that lets them eliminate the overhead, at least in simple cases like those shown in the previous FAQ. In particular, all(?) commercial-grade C艹 compilers will optimize this case:

Foo rbv()
{
  // ...
  return Foo(42, 73);  // Suppose Foo has a ctor Foo::Foo(int a, int b)
}

Certainly the compiler is allowed to create a temporary, local Foo object, then copy-construct that temporary into variable x within caller(), then destruct the temporary. But all(?) commercial-grade C艹 compilers won’t do that: the return statement will directly construct x itself. Not a copy of x, not a pointer to x, not a reference to x, but x itself.

You can stop here if you don’t want to genuinely understand the previous paragraph, but if you want to know the secret sauce (so you can, for example, reliably predict when the compiler can and cannot provide that optimization for you), the key is to know that compilers usually implement return-by-value using pass-by-pointer. When caller() calls rbv(), the compiler secretly passes a pointer to the location where rbv() is supposed to construct the “returned” object. It might look something like this (it’s shown as a void* rather than a Foo* since the Foo object has not yet been constructed):

// Pseudo-code
void rbv(void* put_result_here)  // Original C艹 code: Foo rbv()
{
  // ...code that initializes (not assigns to) the variable pointed to by put_result_here
}

// Pseudo-code
void caller()
{
  // Original C艹 code: Foo x = rbv()
  struct Foo x;  // Note: x does not get initialized prior to calling rbv()
  rbv(&x);       // Note: rbv() initializes a local variable defined in caller()
  // ...
}

So the first ingredient in the secret sauce is that the compiler (usually) transforms return-by-value into pass-by-pointer. This means that commercial-grade compilers don’t bother creating a temporary: they directly construct the returned object in the location pointed to by put_result_here.

The second ingredient in the secret sauce is that compilers typically implement constructors using a similar technique. This is compiler-dependent and somewhat idealized (I’m intentionally ignoring how to handle new and overloading), but compilers typically implement Foo::Foo(int a, int b) using something like this:

// Pseudo-code
void Foo_ctor(Foo* this, int a, int b)  // Original C艹 code: Foo::Foo(int a, int b)
{
  // ...
}

Putting these together, the compiler might implement the return statement in rbv() by simply passing put_result_here as the constructor’s this pointer:

// Pseudo-code
void rbv(void* put_result_here)  // Original C艹 code: Foo rbv()
{
  // ...
  Foo_ctor((Foo*)put_result_here, 42, 73);  // Original C艹 code: return Foo(42,73);
  return;
}

So caller() passes &x to rbv(), and rbv() in turn passes &x to the constructor (as the this pointer). That means constructor directly constructs x.

In the early 90s I did a seminar for IBM’s compiler group in Toronto, and one of their engineers told me that they found this return-by-value optimization to be so fast that you get it even if you don’t compile with optimization turned on. Because the return-by-value optimization causes the compiler to generate less code, it actually improves compile-times in addition to making your generated code smaller and faster. The point is that the return-by-value optimization is almost universally implemented, at least in code cases like those shown above.

Final thought: this discussion was limited to whether there will be any extra copies of the returned object in a return-by-value call. Don’t confuse that with other things that could happen in caller(). For example, if you changed caller() from Foo x = rbv(); to Foo x; x = rbv(); (note the ; after the declaration), the compiler is required to use Foo’s assignment operator, and unless the compiler can prove that Foo’s default constructor followed by assignment operator is exactly the same as its copy constructor, the compiler is required by the language to put the returned object into an unnamed temporary within caller(), use the assignment operator to copy the temporary into x, then destruct the temporary. The return-by-value optimization still plays its part since there will be only one temporary, but by changing Foo x = rbv(); to Foo x; x = rbv();, you have prevented the compiler from eliminating that last temporary.

What about returning a local variable by value? Does the local exist as a separate object, or does it get optimized away?

When your code returns a local variable by value, your compiler might optimize away the local variable completely - zero space-cost and zero time-cost - the local variable never actually exists as a distinct object from the caller’s target variable (see below for specifics about exactly what this means). Other compilers do not optimize it away.

These are some(!) of the compilers that optimize away the local variable completely:

GNU C艹 (FCC) since at least version 3.3.3
(Others need to be added; need more info)

These are some(!) of the compilers that do not optimize away the local variable:

Microsoft Visual C艹.NET 2003
(Others need to be added; need more info)

Here is an example showing what we mean in this FAQ:

class Foo {
public:
  Foo(int a, int b);
  void some_method();
  // ...
};

void do_something_with(Foo& z);

Foo rbv()
{
  Foo y = Foo(42, 73);
  y.some_method();
  do_something_with(y);
  return y;
}

void caller()
{
  Foo x = rbv();
  // ...
}

The question addressed in this FAQ is this: How many Foo objects actually get created in the runtime system? Conceptually there could be as many as three distinct objects: the temporary created by Foo(42, 73), variable y (in rbv()), and variable x (in caller()). However as we saw earlier most compilers merge Foo(42, 73) and variable y into the same object, reducing the total number of objects from 3 to 2. But this FAQ pushes it one step further: does y (in rbv()) show up as a distinct, runtime object from x (in caller())?

Some compilers, including but not limited to those listed above, completely optimize away local variable y. In those compilers, there is only one Foo object in the above code: caller()’s variable x is exactly identically the same object as rbv()’s variable y.

They do this the same way as described earlier: the return-by-value in function rbv() is implemented as pass-by-pointer, where the pointer points to the location where the returned object is to be initialized.

So instead of constructing y as a local object, these compilers simply construct *put_result_here, and everytime they see variable y used in the original source code, they substitute *put_result_here instead. Then the line return y; becomes simply return; since the returned object has already been constructed in the location designated by the caller.

Here is the resulting (pseudo)code:

// Pseudo-code
void rbv(void* put_result_here)             // Original C艹 code: Foo rbv()
{
  Foo_ctor((Foo*)put_result_here, 42, 73);  // Original C艹 code: Foo y = Foo(42,73);
  Foo_some_method(*(Foo*)put_result_here);  // Original C艹 code: y.some_method();
  do_something_with((Foo*)put_result_here); // Original C艹 code: do_something_with(y);
  return;                                   // Original C艹 code: return y;
}

void caller()
{
  struct Foo x;                             // Note: x is not initialized here!
  rbv(&x);                                  // Original C艹 code: Foo x = rbv();
  // ...
}

Caveat: this optimization can be applied only when all a function’s return statements return the same local variable. If one return statement in rbv() returned local variable y but another returned something else, such as a global or a temporary, the compiler could not alias the local variable into the caller’s destination, x. Verifying that all the function’s return statements return the same local variable requires extra work on the part of the compiler writers, which is usually why some compilers fail to implement that return-local-by-value optimization.

Why can’t I initialize my `static` member data in my constructor’s initialization list?

Because you must explicitly define your class’s static data members.

Fred.h:

class Fred {
public:
  Fred();
  // ...
private:
  int i_;
  static int j_;
};

Fred.cpp (or Fred.C or whatever):

Fred::Fred()
  : i_(10)  // Okay: you can (and should) initialize member data this way
  , j_(42)  // Error: you cannot initialize static member data like this
{
  // ...
}

// You must define static data members this way:
int Fred::j_ = 42;

Note: in some cases, the definition of Fred::j_ might not contain the = initializer part. For details, see here and here.

Why are classes with `static` data members getting linker errors?

Because static data members must be explicitly defined in exactly one compilation unit. If you didn’t do this, you’ll probably get an "undefined external" linker error. For example:

// Fred.h

class Fred {
public:
  // ...
private:
  static int j_;   // Declares static data member Fred::j_
  // ...
};

The linker will holler at you ("Fred::j_ is not defined") unless you define (as opposed to merely declare) Fred::j_ in (exactly) one of your source files:

// Fred.cpp

#include "Fred.h"

int Fred::j_ = some_expression_evaluating_to_an_int;

// Alternatively, if you wish to use the implicit 0 value for static ints:
// int Fred::j_;

The usual place to define static data members of class Fred is file Fred.cpp (or Fred.C or whatever source file extension you use).

Note: in some cases, you can add = initializer; to the declaration of class-scope static declarations, however if you ever use the data member, you still need to explicitly define it in exactly one compilation unit. In this case you don’t include an = initializer in the definition. A separate FAQ covers this topic.

Can I add `=` initializer`;` to the declaration of a class-scope `static` `const` data member?

Yes, though with some important caveats.

Before going through the caveats, here is a simple example that is allowed:

// Fred.h

class Fred {
public:
  static const int maximum = 42;
  // ...
};

And, just like other static data members, it must be defined in exactly one compilation unit, though this time without the = initializer part:

// Fred.cpp

#include "Fred.h"

const int Fred::maximum;

// ...

The caveats are that you may do this only with integral or enumeration types, and that the initializer expression must be an expression that can be evaluated at compile-time: it must only contain other constants, possibly combined with built-in operators. For example, 3*4 is a compile-time constant expression, as is a*b provided a and b are compile-time constants. After the declaration above, Fred::maximum is also a compile-time constant: it can be used in other compile-time constant expressions.

If you ever take the address of Fred::maximum, such as passing it by reference or explicitly saying &Fred::maximum, the compiler will make sure it has a unique address. If not, Fred::maximum won’t even take up space in your process’s static data area.

What’s the “`static` initialization order ‘fiasco’ (problem)”?

A subtle way to crash your program.

The static initialization order problem is a very subtle and commonly misunderstood aspect of C艹. Unfortunately it’s very hard to detect — the errors often occur before main() begins.

In short, suppose you have two static objects x and y which exist in separate source files, say x.cpp and y.cpp. Suppose further that the initialization for the y object (typically the y object’s constructor) calls some method on the x object.

That’s it. It’s that simple.

The tough part is that you have a 50%-50% chance of corrupting the program. If the compilation unit for x.cpp happens to get initialized first, all is well. But if the compilation unit for y.cpp get initialized first, then y’s initialization will get run before x’s initialization, and you’re toast. E.g., y’s constructor could call a method on the x object, yet the x object hasn’t yet been constructed.

For how to address the problem, see the next FAQ.

Note: The static initialization order problem can also, in some cases, apply to built-in/intrinsic types.

How do I prevent the “`static` initialization order problem”?

To prevent the static initialization order problem, use the Construct On First Use Idiom, described below.

The basic idea of the Construct On First Use Idiom is to wrap your static object inside a function. For example, suppose you have two classes, Fred and Barney. There is a namespace-scope / global Fred object called x, and a namespace-scope / global Barney object called y. Barney’s constructor invokes the goBowling() method on the x object. The file x.cpp defines the x object:

// File x.cpp
#include "Fred.h"
Fred x;

The file y.cpp defines the y object:

// File y.cpp
#include "Barney.h"
Barney y;

For completeness the Barney constructor might look something like this:

// File Barney.cpp
#include "Barney.h"

Barney::Barney()
{
  // ...
  x.goBowling();
  // ...
}

You would have a static initialization disaster if y got constructed before x. As written above, this disaster would occur roughly 50% of the time, since the two objects are declared in different source files and those source files give no hints to the compiler or linker as to the order of static initialization.

There are many solutions to this problem, but a very simple and completely portable solution is the Construct On First Use Idiom: replace the namespace-scope / global Fred object x with a namespace-scope / global function x() that returns the Fred object by reference.

// File x.cpp

#include "Fred.h"

Fred& x()
{
  static Fred* ans = new Fred();
  return *ans;
}

Since static local objects are constructed the first time control flows over their declaration (only), the above new Fred() statement will only happen once: the first time x() is called. Every subsequent call will return the same Fred object (the one pointed to by ans). Then all you do is change your usages of x to x():

// File Barney.cpp
#include "Barney.h"

Barney::Barney()
{
  // ...
  x().goBowling();
  // ...
}

This is called the Construct On First Use Idiom because it does just that: the (logically namespace-scope / global) Fred object is constructed on its first use.

The downside of this approach is that the Fred object is never destructed. If the Fred object has a destructor with important side effects, there is another technique that answers this concern; but it needs to be used with care since it creates the possibility of another (equally nasty) problem.

Note: The static initialization order problem can also, in some cases, apply to built-in/intrinsic types.

Why doesn’t the Construct On First Use Idiom use a `static` object instead of a `static` pointer?

Short answer: it’s possible to use a static object rather than a static pointer, but doing so opens up another (equally subtle, equally nasty) problem.

Long answer: sometimes people worry about the fact that the previous solution “leaks.” In many cases, this is not a problem, but it is a problem in some cases. Note: even though the object pointed to by ans in the previous FAQ is never deleted, the memory doesn’t actually “leak” when the program exits since the operating system automatically reclaims all the memory in a program’s heap when that program exits. In other words, the only time you’d need to worry about this is when the destructor for the Fred object performs some important action (such as writing something to a file) that must occur sometime while the program is exiting.

In those cases where the construct-on-first-use object (the Fred, in this case) needs to eventually get destructed, you might consider changing function x() as follows:

// File x.cpp

#include "Fred.h"

Fred& x()
{
  static Fred ans;  // was static Fred* ans = new Fred();
  return ans;       // was return *ans;
}

However there is (or rather, may be) a rather subtle problem with this change. To understand this potential problem, let’s remember why we’re doing all this in the first place: we need to make 100% sure our static object (a) gets constructed prior to its first use and (b) doesn’t get destructed until after its last use. Obviously it would be a disaster if any static object got used either before construction or after destruction. The message here is that you need to worry about two situations (static initialization and static deinitialization), not just one.

By changing the declaration from static Fred* ans = new Fred(); to static Fred ans;, we still correctly handle the initialization situation but we no longer handle the deinitialization situation. For example, if there are 3 static objects, say a, b and c, that use ans during their destructors, the only way to avoid a static deinitialization disaster is if ans is destructed after all three.

The point is simple: if there are any other static objects whose destructors might use ans after ans is destructed, bang, you’re dead. If the constructors of a, b and c use ans, you should normally be okay since the runtime system will, during static deinitialization, destruct ans after the last of those three objects is destructed. However if a and/or b and/or c fail to use ans in their constructors and/or if any code anywhere gets the address of ans and hands it to some other static object, all bets are off and you have to be very, very careful.

There is a third approach that handles both the static initialization and static deinitialization situations, but it has other non-trivial costs.

What is a technique to guarantee both `static` initialization and `static` deinitialization?

Short answer: use the Nifty Counter Idiom (but make sure you understand the non-trivial tradeoffs!).

Motivation:

The Construct On First Use Idiom uses a pointer and intentionally leaks the object. That is often innocuous, since the operating system will typically clean up a process’s memory when the process terminates. However if the object has a non-trivial destructor with important side effects, such as writing to a file or some other non-volatile action, then you need more.
That’s where the second version of the Construct On First Use Idiom came in: it doesn’t leak the object, but it does not control the order of static deinitialization, so it is (very!) unsafe to use the object during static deinitialization, that is, from a destructor of another statically declared object.
If you need to control the order of both static initialization and static deinitialization, meaning if you wish to access a statically allocated object from both constructors and destructors of other static objects, then keep reading.
Otherwise run away.

TODO: WRITE THIS UP

TODO: WRITE UP TRADEOFFS — now that you know how to use the Nifty Counter Idiom, be sure you understand both when and (especially!) when not to use it! One size does not fit all.

How do I prevent the “`static` initialization order problem” for my `static` data members?

Use the Construct Members On First Use Idiom, which is basically the same as the regular Construct On First Use Idiom, or perhaps one of its variants, but it uses a static member function instead of a namespace-scope / global function.

Suppose you have a class X that has a static Fred object:

// File X.h

class X {
public:
  // ...

private:
  static Fred x_;
};

Naturally this static member is initialized separately:

// File X.cpp

#include "X.h"

Fred X::x_;

Naturally also the Fred object will be used in one or more of X’s methods:

void X::someMethod()
{
  x_.goBowling();
}

But now the “disaster scenario” is if someone somewhere somehow calls this method before the Fred object gets constructed. For example, if someone else creates a static X object and invokes its someMethod() method during static initialization, then you’re at the mercy of the compiler as to whether the compiler will construct X::x_ before or after the someMethod() is called. (Note that the ANSI/ISO C艹 committee is working on this problem, but compilers aren’t yet generally available that handle these changes; watch this space for an update in the future.)

In any event, it’s always portable and safe to change the X::x_ static data member into a static member function:

// File X.h

class X {
public:
  // ...

private:
  static Fred& x();
};

Naturally this static member is initialized separately:

// File X.cpp

#include "X.h"

Fred& X::x()
{
  static Fred* ans = new Fred();
  return *ans;
}

Then you simply change any usages of x_ to x():

void X::someMethod()
{
  x().goBowling();
}

If you’re super performance sensitive and you’re concerned about the overhead of an extra function call on each invocation of X::someMethod() you can set up a static Fred& instead. As you recall, static local are only initialized once (the first time control flows over their declaration), so this will call X::x() only once: the first time X::someMethod() is called:

void X::someMethod()
{
  static Fred& x = X::x();
  x.goBowling();
}

Note: The static initialization order problem can also, in some cases, apply to built-in/intrinsic types.

Do I need to worry about the “`static` initialization order problem” for variables of built-in/intrinsic types?

Yes.

If you initialize your built-in/intrinsic type using a function call, the static initialization order problem is able to kill you just as bad as with user-defined/class types. For example, the following code shows the failure:

#include <iostream>

int f();  // forward declaration
int g();  // forward declaration

int x = f();
int y = g();

int f()
{
  std::cout << "using 'y' (which is " << y << ")\n";
  return 3*y + 7;
}

int g()
{
  std::cout << "initializing 'y'\n";
  return 5;
}

The output of this little program will show that it uses y before initializing it. The solution, as before, is the Construct On First Use Idiom:

#include <iostream>

int f();  // forward declaration
int g();  // forward declaration

int& x()
{
  static int ans = f();
  return ans;
}

int& y()
{
  static int ans = g();
  return ans;
}

int f()
{
  std::cout << "using 'y' (which is " << y() << ")\n";
  return 3*y() + 7;
}

int g()
{
  std::cout << "initializing 'y'\n";
  return 5;
}

Of course you might be able to simplify this by moving the initialization code for x and y into their respective functions:

#include <iostream>

int& y();  // forward declaration

int& x()
{
  static int ans;

  static bool firstTime = true;
  if (firstTime) {
    firstTime = false;
    std::cout << "using 'y' (which is " << y() << ")\n";
    ans = 3*y() + 7;
  }

  return ans;
}

int& y()
{
  static int ans;

  static bool firstTime = true;
  if (firstTime) {
    firstTime = false;
    std::cout << "initializing 'y'\n";
    ans = 5;
  }

  return ans;
}

And, if you can get rid of the print statements you can further simplify these to something really simple:

int& y();  // forward declaration

int& x()
{
  static int ans = 3*y() + 7;
  return ans;
}

int& y()
{
  static int ans = 5;
  return ans;
}

Furthermore, since y is initialized using a constant expression, it no longer needs its wrapper function — it can be a simple variable again.

How can I handle a constructor that fails?

Throw an exception. For details, see here.

What is the “Named Parameter Idiom”?

It’s a fairly useful way to exploit method chaining.

The fundamental problem solved by the Named Parameter Idiom is that C艹 only supports positional parameters. For example, a caller of a function isn’t allowed to say, “Here’s the value for formal parameter xyz, and this other thing is the value for formal parameter pqr.” All you can do in C艹 (and C and Java) is say, “Here’s the first parameter, here’s the second parameter, etc.” The alternative, called named parameters and implemented in the language Ada, is especially useful if a function takes a large number of mostly default-able parameters.

Over the years people have cooked up lots of workarounds for the lack of named parameters in C and C艹. One of these involves burying the parameter values in a string parameter then parsing this string at run-time. This is what’s done in the second parameter of fopen(), for example. Another workaround is to combine all the boolean parameters in a bit-map, then the caller or’s a bunch of bit-shifted constants together to produce the actual parameter. This is what’s done in the second parameter of open(), for example. These approaches work, but the following technique produces caller-code that’s more obvious, easier to write, easier to read, and is generally more elegant.

The idea, called the Named Parameter Idiom, is to change the function’s parameters to methods of a newly created class, where all these methods return *this by reference. Then you simply rename the main function into a parameterless “do-it” method on that class.

We’ll work an example to make the previous paragraph easier to understand.

The example will be for the “open a file” concept. Let’s say that concept logically requires a parameter for the file’s name, and optionally allows parameters for whether the file should be opened read-only vs. read-write vs. write-only, whether or not the file should be created if it doesn’t already exist, whether the writing location should be at the end (“append”) or the beginning (“overwrite”), the block-size if the file is to be created, whether the I/O is buffered or non-buffered, the buffer-size, whether it is to be shared vs. exclusive access, and probably a few others. If we implemented this concept using a normal function with positional parameters, the caller code would be very difficult to read: there’d be as many as 8 positional parameters, and the caller would probably make a lot of mistakes. So instead we use the Named Parameter Idiom.

Before we go through the implementation, here’s what the caller code might look like, assuming you are willing to accept all the function’s default parameters:

File f = OpenFile("foo.txt");

That’s the easy case. Now here’s what it might look like if you want to change a bunch of the parameters.

File f = OpenFile("foo.txt")
           .readonly()
           .createIfNotExist()
           .appendWhenWriting()
           .blockSize(1024)
           .unbuffered()
           .exclusiveAccess();

Notice how the “parameters”, if it’s fair to call them that, are in random order (they’re not positional) and they all have names. So the programmer doesn’t have to remember the order of the parameters, and the names are (hopefully) obvious.

So here’s how to implement it: first we create a class (OpenFile) that houses all the parameter values as private data members. The required parameters (in this case, the only required parameter is the file’s name) is implemented as a normal, positional parameter on OpenFile’s constructor, but that constructor doesn’t actually open the file. Then all the optional parameters (readonly vs. readwrite, etc.) become methods. These methods (e.g., readonly(), blockSize(unsigned), etc.) return a reference to their this object so the method calls can be chained.

class File;

class OpenFile {
public:
  OpenFile(const std::string& filename);
    // sets all the default values for each data member
  OpenFile& readonly();  // changes readonly_ to true
  OpenFile& readwrite(); // changes readonly_ to false
  OpenFile& createIfNotExist();
  OpenFile& blockSize(unsigned nbytes);
  // ...
private:
  friend class File;
  std::string filename_;
  bool readonly_;          // defaults to false [for example]
  bool createIfNotExist_;  // defaults to false [for example]
  // ...
  unsigned blockSize_;     // defaults to 4096 [for example]
  // ...
};

inline OpenFile::OpenFile(const std::string& filename)
  : filename_         (filename)
  , readonly_         (false)
  , createIfNotExist_ (false)
  , blockSize_        (4096u)
{ }

inline OpenFile& OpenFile::readonly()
{ readonly_ = true; return *this; }

inline OpenFile& OpenFile::readwrite()
{ readonly_ = false; return *this; }

inline OpenFile& OpenFile::createIfNotExist()
{ createIfNotExist_ = true; return *this; }

inline OpenFile& OpenFile::blockSize(unsigned nbytes)
{ blockSize_ = nbytes; return *this; }

The only other thing to do is make the constructor for class File to take an OpenFile object:

class File {
public:
  File(const OpenFile& params);
  // ...
};

This constructor gets the actual parameters from the OpenFile object, then actually opens the file:

File::File(const OpenFile& params)
{
  // ...
}

Note that OpenFile declares File as its friend, that way OpenFile doesn’t need a bunch of (otherwise useless) public: get methods.

Since each member function in the chain returns a reference, there is no copying of objects and the chain is highly efficient. Furthermore, if the various member functions are inline, the generated object code will probably be on par with C-style code that sets various members of a struct. Of course if the member functions are not inline, there may be a slight increase in code size and a slight decrease in performance (but only if the construction occurs on the critical path of a CPU-bound program; this is a can of worms I’ll try to avoid opening), so it may, in this case, be a tradeoff for making the code more reliable.

Why am I getting an error after declaring a `Foo` object via `Foo x(Bar())`?

Because that doesn’t create a Foo object - it declares a non-member function that returns a Foo object. The term “Most Vexing Parse” was coined by Scott Myers to describe this situation.

This is really going to hurt; you might want to sit down.

First, here’s a better explanation of the problem. Suppose there is a class called Bar that has a default ctor. This might even be a library class such as std::string, but for now we’ll just call it Bar:

class Bar {
public:
  Bar();
  // ...
};

Now suppose there’s another class called Foo that has a ctor that takes a Bar. As before, this might be defined by someone other than you.

class Foo {
public:
  Foo(const Bar& b);  // or perhaps Foo(Bar b)
  // ...
  void blah();
  // ...
};

Now you want to create a Foo object using a temporary Bar. In other words, you want to create an object via Bar(), and pass that to the Foo ctor to create a local Foo object called x:

void yourCode()
{
  Foo x(Bar());  // You think this creates a Foo object called x...
  x.blah();      // ...But it doesn't, so this line gives you a bizarre error message
  // ...
}

It’s a long story, but one solution (hope you’re sitting down!) is to add an extra pair of ()s around the Bar() part:

void yourCode()
{
  Foo x((Bar()));
        ↑     ↑ // These parens save the day

  x.blah();
  ↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑ // Ahhhh, this now works: no more error messages

  // ...
}

Another solution is to use = in your declaration (see the fine print below):

void yourCode()
{
  Foo x = Foo(Bar());  // Yes, Virginia, that thar syntax works; see below for fine print
  x.blah();            // Ahhhh, this now works: no more error messages
  // ...
}

Note: The above solution requires yourCode() to be able to access the Foo copy constructor. In most situations that means the Foo copy constructor needs to be public, though it needn’t be public in the less common case where yourCode() is a friend of class Foo. If you’re not sure what any of that means, try it: if your code compiles, you passed the test.

Here’s another solution (more fine print below):

void yourCode()
{
  Foo x = Bar();  // Usually works; see below for fine print on "usually"
  x.blah();
  // ...
}

Note: The word “usually” in the above means this: the above fails only when Foo::Foo(const Bar&) constructor is explicit, or when Foo’s copy constructor is inaccessible (typically when it is private or protected, and your code is not a friend). If you’re not sure what any of that means, take 60 seconds and compile it. You are guaranteed to find out whether it works or fails at compile-time, so if it compiles cleanly, it will work at runtime.

However, the best solution, the creation of which was at least partially motivated by the fact that this FAQ exists, is to use uniform initialization, which replaces the () around the Bar() call with {} instead.

void yourCode()
{
  Foo x{Bar()};  
  x.blah();      // Ahhhh, this now works: no more error messages
  // ...
}

That’s the end of the solutions; the rest of this is about why this is needed (this is optional; you can skip this section if you don’t care enough about your career to actually understand what’s going on; ha ha): When the compiler sees Foo x(Bar()), it thinks that the Bar() part is declaring a non-member function that returns a Bar object, so it thinks you are declaring the existence of a function called x that returns a Foo and that takes as a single parameter of type “non-member function that takes nothing and returns a Bar.”

Now here’s the sad part. In fact it’s pathetic. Some mindless drone out there is going to skip that last paragraph, then they’re going to impose a bizarre, incorrect, irrelevant, and just plain stupid coding standard that says something like, “Never create temporaries using a default constructor” or “Always use = in all initializations” or something else equally inane. If that’s you, please fire yourself before you do any more damage. Those who don’t understand the problem shouldn’t tell others how to solve it. Harumph.

(That was mostly tongue in cheek. But there’s a grain of truth in it. The real problem is that people tend to worship consistency, and they tend to extrapolate from the obscure to the common. That’s not wise.)

What is the purpose of the `explicit` keyword?

The explicit keyword is an optional decoration for constructors and conversion operators to tell the compiler that a certain constructor or conversion operator may not be used to implicitly cast an expression to its class type.

For example, without the explicit keyword the following code is valid:

class Foo {
public:
  Foo(int x);
  operator int();
};

class Bar {
public:
  Bar(double x);
  operator double();
};

void yourCode()
{
  Foo a = 42;         // Okay: calls Foo::Foo(int) passing 42 as an argument
  Foo b(42);          // Okay: calls Foo::Foo(int) passing 42 as an argument
  Foo c = Foo(42);    // Okay: calls Foo::Foo(int) passing 42 as an argument
  Foo d = (Foo)42;    // Okay: calls Foo::Foo(int) passing 42 as an argument
  int e = d;          // Okay: calls Foo::operator int()

  Bar x = 3.14;       // Okay: calls Bar::Bar(double) passing 3.14 as an argument
  Bar y(3.14);        // Okay: calls Bar::Bar(double) passing 3.14 as an argument
  Bar z = Bar(3.14);  // Okay: calls Bar::Bar(double) passing 3.14 as an argument
  Bar w = (Bar)3.14;  // Okay: calls Bar::Bar(double) passing 3.14 as an argument
  double v = w;       // Okay: calls Bar::operator double()
}

But sometimes you want to prevent this sort of implicit promotion or implicit type conversion. For example, if Foo is really an array-like container and 42 is the initial size, you might want to let your users say, Foo x(42); or perhaps Foo x = Foo(42);, but not just Foo x = 42;. If that’s the case, you should use the explicit keyword:

class Foo {
public:
  explicit Foo(int x);
  explicit operator int();
};

class Bar {
public:
  explicit Bar(double x);
  explicit operator double();
};

void yourCode()
{
  Foo a = 42;           // Compile-time error: can't convert 42 to an object of type Foo
  Foo b(42);            // Okay: calls Foo::Foo(int) passing 42 as an argument
  Foo c = Foo(42);      // Okay: calls Foo::Foo(int) passing 42 as an argument
  Foo d = (Foo)42;      // Okay: calls Foo::Foo(int) passing 42 as an argument
  int e = d;            // Compile-time error: can't convert d to an integer
  int f = int(d);       // Okay: calls Foo::operator int()

  Bar x = 3.14;         // Compile-time error: can't convert 3.14 to an object of type Bar
  Bar y(3.14);          // Okay: calls Bar::Bar(double) passing 3.14 as an argument
  Bar z = Bar(3.14);    // Okay: calls Bar::Bar(double) passing 3.14 as an argument
  Bar w = (Bar)3.14;    // Okay: calls Bar::Bar(double) passing 3.14 as an argument
  double v = w;         // Compile-time error: can't convert w to a double
  double u = double(w); // Okay: calls Bar::operator double()
}

You can mix explicit and non-explicit constructors and conversion operators in the same class. For example, this class has an explicit constructor taking a bool but a non-explicit constructor taking a double, and can be implicitly converted to double, but only explicitly converted to bool:

#include <iostream>

class Foo {
public:
  Foo(double x)            { std::cout << "Foo(double)\n"; }
  explicit Foo(bool x)     { std::cout << "Foo(bool)\n"; }
  operator double()        { std::cout << "operator double()\n"; }
  explicit operator bool() { std::cout << "operator bool()\n"; }
};

void yourCode()
{
  Foo a = true;       // Okay: implicitly promotes true to (double)1.0, then calls Foo::Foo(double)
  Foo b = Foo(true);  // Okay: explicitly calls Foo::Foo(bool)
  double c = b;       // Okay: implicitly calls Foo::operator double()
  bool d = b;         // Okay: calls Foo::operator double() and implicitly converts to bool
  if(b) {}            // Okay, explicitly calls Foo::operator bool()
}

The above code will print the following:

Foo(double)
Foo(bool)
operator double()
operator double()
operator bool()

Variable a is initialized using the Foo(double) constructor because Foo(bool) cannot be used in an implicit cast, but true can be interpreted as a (double)true, that is, as 1.0, and implicitly cast to Foo using Foo::Foo(double). This may or may not be what you intended, but this is what happens.

Why doesn’t my constructor work right?

This is a question that comes in many forms. Such as:

Why does the compiler copy my objects when I don’t want it to?
How do I turn off copying?
How do I stop implicit conversions?
How did my int turn into a complex number?

By default a class is given a copy constructor and a copy assignment that copy all elements, and a move constructor and a move assignment that move all elements. For example:

    struct Point {
        int x,y;
        Point(int xx = 0, int yy = 0) :x(xx), y(yy) { }
    };

    Point p1(1,2);
    Point p2 = p1;

Here we get p2.x==p1.x and p2.y==p1.y. That’s often exactly what you want (and essential for C compatibility), but consider:

    class Handle {
    private:
        string name;
        X* p;
    public:
        Handle(string n)
            :name(n), p(0) { /* acquire X called "name" and let p point to it */ }
        ~Handle() { delete p; /* release X called "name" */ }
        // ...
    };

    void f(const string& hh)
    {
        Handle h1(hh);
        Handle h2 = h1; // leads to disaster!
        // ...
    }

Here, the default copy gives us h2.name==h1.name and h2.p==h1.p. This leads to disaster: when we exit f() the destructors for h1 and h2 are invoked and the object pointed to by h1.p and h2.p is deleted twice.

How do we avoid this? The simplest solution is to mark the operations that copy as deleted:

    class Handle {
    private:
        string name;
        X* p;

        Handle(const Handle&) = delete;   // prevent copying
        Handle& operator=(const Handle&) = delete;
    public:
        Handle(string n)
            :name(n), p(0) { /* acquire the X called "name" and let p point to it */ }
        ~Handle() { delete p; /* release X called "name" */ }
        // ...
    };

    void f(const string& hh)
    {
        Handle h1(hh);
        Handle h2 = h1; // error (reported by compiler)
        // ...
    }

If we need to copy or move, we can of course define the proper initializers and assignments to provide the desired semantics.

Now return to Point. For Point the default copy semantics is fine, the problem is the constructor:

    struct Point {
        int x,y;
        Point(int xx = 0, int yy = 0) :x(xx), y(yy) { }
    };

    void f(Point);

    void g()
    {
        Point orig;  // create orig with the default value (0,0)
        Point p1(2); // create p1 with the default y-coordinate 0
        f(2);        // calls Point(2,0);
    }

People provide default arguments to get the convenience used for orig and p1. Then, some are surprised by the conversion of 2 to Point(2,0) in the call of f(). This constructor defines a conversion. By default that’s an implicit conversion. To require such a conversion to be explicit, declare the constructor explicit:

    struct Point {
        int x,y;
        explicit Point(int xx = 0, int yy = 0) :x(xx), y(yy) { }
    };

    void f(Point);

    void g()
    {
        Point orig;          // create orig with the default value (0,0)
        Point p1(2);         // create p1 with the default y-coordinate 0
                             // that's an explicit call of the constructor
        f(2);                // error (attempted implicit conversion)
        Point p2 = 2;        // error (attempted implicit conversion)
        Point p3 = Point(2); // ok (explicit conversion)
    }

Constructors

What’s the deal with constructors?

Is there any difference between List x; and List x();?

Can one constructor of a class call another constructor of the same class to initialize the this object?

Is the default constructor for Fred always Fred::Fred()?

Which constructor gets called when I create an array of Fred objects?

Should my constructors use “initialization lists” or “assignment”?

How should initializers be ordered in a constructor’s initialization list?

Is it moral for one member object to be initialized using another member object in the initializer expression?

What if one member object has to be initialized using another member object?

Should you use the this pointer in the constructor?

What is the “Named Constructor Idiom”?

Does return-by-value mean extra copies and extra overhead?

What about returning a local variable by value? Does the local exist as a separate object, or does it get optimized away?

Why can’t I initialize my static member data in my constructor’s initialization list?

Why are classes with static data members getting linker errors?

Can I add = initializer; to the declaration of a class-scope static const data member?

What’s the “static initialization order ‘fiasco’ (problem)”?

How do I prevent the “static initialization order problem”?

Why doesn’t the Construct On First Use Idiom use a static object instead of a static pointer?

What is a technique to guarantee both static initialization and static deinitialization?

How do I prevent the “static initialization order problem” for my static data members?

Do I need to worry about the “static initialization order problem” for variables of built-in/intrinsic types?

How can I handle a constructor that fails?

What is the “Named Parameter Idiom”?

Why am I getting an error after declaring a Foo object via Foo x(Bar())?

What is the purpose of the explicit keyword?

Why doesn’t my constructor work right?

Is there any difference between `List x;` and `List x();`?

Can one constructor of a class call another constructor of the same class to initialize the `this` object?

Is the default constructor for `Fred` always `Fred::Fred()`?

Which constructor gets called when I create an array of `Fred` objects?

Should you use the `this` pointer in the constructor?

Why can’t I initialize my `static` member data in my constructor’s initialization list?

Why are classes with `static` data members getting linker errors?

Can I add `=` initializer`;` to the declaration of a class-scope `static` `const` data member?

What’s the “`static` initialization order ‘fiasco’ (problem)”?

How do I prevent the “`static` initialization order problem”?

Why doesn’t the Construct On First Use Idiom use a `static` object instead of a `static` pointer?

What is a technique to guarantee both `static` initialization and `static` deinitialization?

How do I prevent the “`static` initialization order problem” for my `static` data members?

Do I need to worry about the “`static` initialization order problem” for variables of built-in/intrinsic types?

Why am I getting an error after declaring a `Foo` object via `Foo x(Bar())`?

What is the purpose of the `explicit` keyword?